O00206 · TLR4_HUMAN

  • Protein
    Toll-like receptor 4
  • Gene
    TLR4
  • Status
    UniProtKB reviewed (Swiss-Prot)
  • Amino acids
  • Protein existence
    Evidence at protein level
  • Annotation score
    5/5

Function

function

Transmembrane receptor that functions as a pattern recognition receptor recognizing pathogen- and damage-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs and DAMPs) to induce innate immune responses via downstream signaling pathways (PubMed:10835634, PubMed:15809303, PubMed:16622205, PubMed:17292937, PubMed:17478729, PubMed:20037584, PubMed:20711192, PubMed:23880187, PubMed:27022195, PubMed:29038465).
At the plasma membrane, cooperates with LY96 to mediate the innate immune response to bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (PubMed:27022195).
Also involved in LPS-independent inflammatory responses triggered by free fatty acids, such as palmitate, and Ni2+ (PubMed:20711192).
Mechanistically, acts via MYD88, TIRAP and TRAF6, leading to NF-kappa-B activation, cytokine secretion and the inflammatory response (PubMed:10835634, PubMed:21393102, PubMed:27022195, PubMed:36945827, PubMed:9237759).
Alternatively, CD14-mediated TLR4 internalization via endocytosis is associated with the initiation of a MYD88-independent signaling via the TICAM1-TBK1-IRF3 axis leading to type I interferon production (PubMed:14517278).
In addition to the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, initiates the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome and formation of a positive feedback loop between autophagy and NF-kappa-B signaling cascade (PubMed:32894580).
In complex with TLR6, promotes inflammation in monocytes/macrophages by associating with TLR6 and the receptor CD86 (PubMed:23880187).
Upon ligand binding, such as oxLDL or amyloid-beta 42, the TLR4:TLR6 complex is internalized and triggers inflammatory response, leading to NF-kappa-B-dependent production of CXCL1, CXCL2 and CCL9 cytokines, via MYD88 signaling pathway, and CCL5 cytokine, via TICAM1 signaling pathway (PubMed:23880187).
In myeloid dendritic cells, vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein G but not LPS promotes the activation of IRF7, leading to type I IFN production in a CD14-dependent manner (PubMed:15265881, PubMed:23880187).
Required for the migration-promoting effects of ZG16B/PAUF on pancreatic cancer cells

Miscellaneous

His-456 and His-458 are found in TLR4 of human and several other primate species and may be responsible for inflammatory responses triggered by nickel (Ni2+).
Ni2+ may cross-link the two receptor monomers through specific histidines, triggering the formation of a dimer that structurally resembles that induced by LPS. This process may be the basis for the development of contact allergy to Ni2+. A mouse model of contact allergy to Ni2+ in which TLR4-deficient mice expresses human TLR4 has been proposed.

Caution

In some plant proteins and in human SARM1, the TIR domain has NAD+ hydrolase (NADase) activity (PubMed:28334607).
However, despite the presence of the catalytic Asp residue, the isolated TIR domain of human TLR4 lacks NADase activity (PubMed:28334607).
Based on this, it is unlikely that Toll-like receptors have NADase activity

GO annotations

AspectTerm
Cellular Componentcell surface
Cellular Componentcytoplasm
Cellular Componentearly endosome
Cellular Componentendosome membrane
Cellular Componentexternal side of plasma membrane
Cellular Componentlipopolysaccharide receptor complex
Cellular Componentperinuclear region of cytoplasm
Cellular Componentphagocytic cup
Cellular Componentplasma membrane
Cellular Componentreceptor complex
Cellular Componentruffle
Molecular Functionamyloid-beta binding
Molecular Functionidentical protein binding
Molecular Functionlipopolysaccharide binding
Molecular Functionlipopolysaccharide immune receptor activity
Molecular FunctionNAD+ nucleotidase, cyclic ADP-ribose generating
Molecular Functionprotein heterodimerization activity
Molecular Functionsignaling receptor activity
Molecular Functionsignaling receptor binding
Molecular Functiontransmembrane signaling receptor activity
Biological Processastrocyte development
Biological ProcessB cell proliferation involved in immune response
Biological Processcellular response to amyloid-beta
Biological Processcellular response to lipopolysaccharide
Biological Processcellular response to lipoteichoic acid
Biological Processcellular response to mechanical stimulus
Biological Processcellular response to oxidised low-density lipoprotein particle stimulus
Biological Processcellular response to platelet-derived growth factor stimulus
Biological Processcellular response to type II interferon
Biological Processdefense response to bacterium
Biological Processdefense response to Gram-negative bacterium
Biological Processdetection of fungus
Biological Processdetection of lipopolysaccharide
Biological ProcessERK1 and ERK2 cascade
Biological Processgene expression
Biological ProcessI-kappaB phosphorylation
Biological Processimmune response
Biological Processinflammatory response
Biological Processinnate immune response
Biological Processintestinal epithelial structure maintenance
Biological ProcessJNK cascade
Biological Processlipopolysaccharide-mediated signaling pathway
Biological Processmacrophage activation
Biological ProcessMHC class II biosynthetic process
Biological Processmicroglia differentiation
Biological ProcessMyD88-dependent toll-like receptor signaling pathway
Biological Processnegative regulation of cold-induced thermogenesis
Biological Processnegative regulation of ERK1 and ERK2 cascade
Biological Processnegative regulation of interleukin-17 production
Biological Processnegative regulation of interleukin-23 production
Biological Processnegative regulation of interleukin-6 production
Biological Processnegative regulation of osteoclast differentiation
Biological Processnegative regulation of tumor necrosis factor production
Biological Processnegative regulation of type II interferon production
Biological Processnitric oxide biosynthetic process
Biological Processnitric oxide production involved in inflammatory response
Biological Processnucleotide-binding oligomerization domain containing 1 signaling pathway
Biological Processnucleotide-binding oligomerization domain containing 2 signaling pathway
Biological Processphagocytosis
Biological Processpositive regulation of B cell proliferation
Biological Processpositive regulation of canonical NF-kappaB signal transduction
Biological Processpositive regulation of cellular response to macrophage colony-stimulating factor stimulus
Biological Processpositive regulation of chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 2 production
Biological Processpositive regulation of chemokine production
Biological Processpositive regulation of cytokine production involved in inflammatory response
Biological Processpositive regulation of ERK1 and ERK2 cascade
Biological Processpositive regulation of extrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway
Biological Processpositive regulation of gene expression
Biological Processpositive regulation of inflammatory response
Biological Processpositive regulation of interferon-alpha production
Biological Processpositive regulation of interferon-beta production
Biological Processpositive regulation of interleukin-1 beta production
Biological Processpositive regulation of interleukin-1 production
Biological Processpositive regulation of interleukin-10 production
Biological Processpositive regulation of interleukin-12 production
Biological Processpositive regulation of interleukin-6 production
Biological Processpositive regulation of interleukin-8 production
Biological Processpositive regulation of JNK cascade
Biological Processpositive regulation of macrophage activation
Biological Processpositive regulation of macrophage cytokine production
Biological Processpositive regulation of MAP kinase activity
Biological Processpositive regulation of matrix metallopeptidase secretion
Biological Processpositive regulation of MHC class II biosynthetic process
Biological Processpositive regulation of NF-kappaB transcription factor activity
Biological Processpositive regulation of nitric oxide biosynthetic process
Biological Processpositive regulation of nitric-oxide synthase biosynthetic process
Biological Processpositive regulation of NLRP3 inflammasome complex assembly
Biological Processpositive regulation of non-canonical NF-kappaB signal transduction
Biological Processpositive regulation of nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain containing 1 signaling pathway
Biological Processpositive regulation of nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain containing 2 signaling pathway
Biological Processpositive regulation of platelet activation
Biological Processpositive regulation of reactive oxygen species biosynthetic process
Biological Processpositive regulation of smooth muscle cell migration
Biological Processpositive regulation of smooth muscle cell proliferation
Biological Processpositive regulation of stress-activated MAPK cascade
Biological Processpositive regulation of transcription by RNA polymerase II
Biological Processpositive regulation of tumor necrosis factor production
Biological Processpositive regulation of type II interferon production
Biological Processregulation of dendritic cell cytokine production
Biological Processresponse to lipopolysaccharide
Biological Processstress-activated MAPK cascade
Biological ProcessT-helper 1 type immune response
Biological Processtoll-like receptor 4 signaling pathway
Biological Processtoll-like receptor signaling pathway
Biological ProcessTRIF-dependent toll-like receptor signaling pathway
Biological Processwound healing involved in inflammatory response

Keywords

Enzyme and pathway databases

Protein family/group databases

    • 8.A.43.1.9the neat-domain containing methaemoglobin heme sequestration (n-mhs) family

Names & Taxonomy

Protein names

  • Recommended name
    Toll-like receptor 4
  • Alternative names
    • hToll
  • CD Antigen Name
    • CD284

Gene names

    • Name
      TLR4

Organism names

  • Taxonomic identifier
  • Taxonomic lineage
    Eukaryota > Metazoa > Chordata > Craniata > Vertebrata > Euteleostomi > Mammalia > Eutheria > Euarchontoglires > Primates > Haplorrhini > Catarrhini > Hominidae > Homo

Accessions

  • Primary accession
    O00206
  • Secondary accessions
    • A8K1Y8
    • A9XLP9
    • A9XLQ0
    • A9XLQ1
    • B4E194

Proteomes

Organism-specific databases

Subcellular Location

Cell membrane
; Single-pass type I membrane protein
Early endosome
Note: Upon complex formation with CD36 and TLR6, internalized through dynamin-dependent endocytosis (PubMed:20037584).
Colocalizes with RFTN1 at cell membrane and then together with RFTN1 moves to endosomes, upon lipopolysaccharide stimulation. Co-localizes with ZG16B/PAUF at the cell membrane of pancreatic cancer cells (PubMed:36232715).

Features

Showing features for topological domain, transmembrane.

TypeIDPosition(s)Description
Topological domain24-631Extracellular
Transmembrane632-652Helical
Topological domain653-839Cytoplasmic

Keywords

Disease & Variants

Features

Showing features for natural variant, mutagenesis.

TypeIDPosition(s)Description
Natural variantVAR_021977175in dbSNP:rs16906079
Natural variantVAR_018729188in dbSNP:rs5030713
Natural variantVAR_018730246in dbSNP:rs5030714
Natural variantVAR_074187287
Natural variantVAR_012739299in allele TLR4*B; reduced LPS-response; associated with an increased risk for age-related macular degeneration in Caucasian carriers; dbSNP:rs4986790
Natural variantVAR_047563306in dbSNP:rs2770145
Natural variantVAR_047564310in dbSNP:rs2770144
Natural variantVAR_018731329in dbSNP:rs5030715
Natural variantVAR_020334342in dbSNP:rs5031050
Natural variantVAR_037668385in dbSNP:rs11536884
Natural variantVAR_012740399in allele TLR4*B; reduced LPS-response; dbSNP:rs4986791
Natural variantVAR_020335400in dbSNP:rs4987233
Mutagenesis431Partially diminishes NF-kappa-B activation induced by Ni2+. Strongly reduces NF-kappa-B activation induced by Ni2+; when associated with A-456 or A-458.
Natural variantVAR_018732443in dbSNP:rs5030716
Mutagenesis456Partially diminishes NF-kappa-B activation induced by Ni2+. Strongly reduces NF-kappa-B activation induced by Ni2+; when associated with A-431. Suppresses NF-kappa-B activation induced by Ni2+; when associated with A-458.
Mutagenesis458Partially diminishes NF-kappa-B activation induced by Ni2+. Strongly reduces NF-kappa-B activation induced by Ni2+; when associated with A-431. Suppresses NF-kappa-B activation induced by Ni2+; when associated with A-456.
Natural variantVAR_018733474in dbSNP:rs5030718
Natural variantVAR_018734510in dbSNP:rs5030719
Mutagenesis526Abolishes LPS-response and prevents the cell surface expression.
Mutagenesis575Abolishes LPS-response and prevents the cell surface expression.
Natural variantVAR_018735694in dbSNP:rs5030722
Mutagenesis697Abolishes LPS-response.
Mutagenesis710Abolishes LPS-response.
Mutagenesis711Abolishes LPS-response.
Mutagenesis714Abolishes MYD88-binding and LPS-response.
Natural variantVAR_018736763in dbSNP:rs5030723
Natural variantVAR_018737834

Variants

We now provide the "Disease & Variants" viewer in its own tab.

The viewer provides 1,379 variants from UniProt as well as other sources including ClinVar and dbSNP.

Go to variant viewer

Keywords

Organism-specific databases

Miscellaneous

Chemistry

Genetic variation databases

PTM/Processing

Features

Showing features for signal, chain, disulfide bond, glycosylation.

TypeIDPosition(s)Description
Signal1-23
ChainPRO_000003472224-839Toll-like receptor 4
Disulfide bond29↔40
Glycosylation35N-linked (GlcNAc...) asparagine
Glycosylation173N-linked (GlcNAc...) asparagine
Glycosylation205N-linked (GlcNAc...) asparagine
Disulfide bond281↔306
Glycosylation282N-linked (GlcNAc...) asparagine
Glycosylation309N-linked (GlcNAc...) asparagine
Disulfide bond390↔391
Glycosylation497N-linked (GlcNAc...) asparagine
Glycosylation526N-linked (GlcNAc...) asparagine
Glycosylation575N-linked (GlcNAc...) asparagine
Disulfide bond583↔609
Disulfide bond585↔627
Glycosylation624N-linked (GlcNAc...) asparagine
Glycosylation630N-linked (GlcNAc...) asparagine

Post-translational modification

N-glycosylated. Glycosylation of Asn-526 and Asn-575 seems to be necessary for the expression of TLR4 on the cell surface and the LPS-response. Likewise, mutants lacking two or more of the other N-glycosylation sites were deficient in interaction with LPS.
Phosphorylated on tyrosine residues by LYN after binding lipopolysaccharide.

Keywords

Proteomic databases

PTM databases

Expression

Tissue specificity

Highly expressed in placenta, spleen and peripheral blood leukocytes (PubMed:9237759, PubMed:9435236).
Detected in monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells and several types of T-cells (PubMed:27022195, PubMed:9237759).
Expressed in pancreatic cancer cells but not in normal pancreatic cells (at protein level) (PubMed:36232715).

Induction

By LPS in plasmacytoid dendritic cells.

Gene expression databases

Organism-specific databases

Interaction

Subunit

Belongs to the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) receptor, a multi-protein complex containing at least CD14, LY96 and TLR4 (PubMed:11274165).
Binding to bacterial LPS leads to homodimerization. Interacts with LY96 via the extracellular domain (PubMed:17803912, PubMed:19252480).
Interacts with MYD88 (PubMed:36232715).
Interacts (via TIR domains) with TIRAP (By similarity).
Interacts with TICAM2 (PubMed:14519765, PubMed:25736436).
Interacts with NOX4 (PubMed:15356101).
Interacts with CNPY3 (By similarity).
Interacts with HSP90B1. The interaction with both CNPY3 and HSP90B1 is required for proper folding in the endoplasmic reticulum. Interacts with MAP3K21; this interaction leads to negative regulation of TLR4 signaling (PubMed:21602844).
Interacts with CD36, following CD36 stimulation by oxLDL or amyloid-beta 42, and forms a heterodimer with TLR6 (PubMed:20037584).
The trimeric complex is internalized and triggers inflammatory response. LYN kinase activity facilitates TLR4-TLR6 heterodimerization and signal initiation. Interacts with TICAM1 in response to LPS in a WDFY1-dependent manner (PubMed:25736436, PubMed:36232715).
Interacts with WDFY1 in response to LPS (By similarity).
Interacts with SMPDL3B (By similarity).
Interacts with CEACAM1; upon lipopolysaccharide stimulation, forms a complex including TLR4 and the phosphorylated form of SYK and CEACAM1, which in turn, recruits PTPN6 that dephosphorylates SYK, reducing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lysosome disruption, which in turn, reduces the activity of the inflammasome (By similarity).
Interacts with RFTN1; the interaction occurs in response to lipopolysaccharide stimulation (PubMed:27022195).
Interacts with SCIMP; the interaction occurs in response to lipopolysaccharide stimulation and is enhanced by phosphorylation of SCIMP by LYN (By similarity).
This interaction facilitates the phosphorylation of TLR4 by LYN which elicits a selective cytokine response in macrophages (By similarity).
Interacts with TRAF3IP3 (PubMed:30573680).
Interacts with TREM1; this interaction enhances TLR4-mediated inflammatory response (PubMed:17098818, PubMed:21393102).
Interacts with ZG16B/PAUF (PubMed:36232715).
Interacts with CD82; this interaction inhibits TLR4-mediated signaling pathway (PubMed:36945827).
Interacts with neutrophil recruitment protein from Aedes aegypti saliva; the interaction probably promotes activation of canonical NF-kappa-B signaling in skin-resident macrophages and subsequent expression of neutrophil chemoattractants (PubMed:38378891).
(Microbial infection) In case of infection, interacts with uropathogenic E.coli protein TcpC.
(Microbial infection) In case of infection, interacts with B.melitensis protein TcpB; TcpB abolishes the TLR4-TIRAP interaction in vitro.
(Microbial infection) Interacts with ebolavirus protein GP; this interaction leads to the production of proinflammatory cytokines and suppressor of cytokine signaling 1/SOCS1.

Binary interactions

View interactors in UniProtKB
View CPX-2545 in Complex Portal

Protein-protein interaction databases

Chemistry

Miscellaneous

Family & Domains

Features

Showing features for repeat, domain.

TypeIDPosition(s)Description
Repeat55-76LRR 1
Repeat79-100LRR 2
Repeat103-124LRR 3
Repeat127-148LRR 4
Repeat151-172LRR 5
Repeat176-199LRR 6
Repeat205-225LRR 7
Repeat227-247LRR 8
Repeat331-351LRR 9
Repeat352-373LRR 10
Repeat374-394LRR 11
Repeat400-422LRR 12
Repeat423-444LRR 13
Repeat448-456LRR 14
Repeat472-495LRR 15
Repeat497-518LRR 16
Repeat521-542LRR 17
Repeat545-565LRR 18
Domain579-629LRRCT
Domain672-815TIR

Domain

The TIR domain mediates interaction with NOX4.

Sequence similarities

Belongs to the Toll-like receptor family.

Keywords

Phylogenomic databases

Family and domain databases

Sequence & Isoforms

Align isoforms (3)
  • Sequence status
    Complete
  • Sequence processing
    The displayed sequence is further processed into a mature form.

This entry describes 3 isoforms produced by Alternative splicing.

O00206-1

This isoform has been chosen as the canonical sequence. All positional information in this entry refers to it. This is also the sequence that appears in the downloadable versions of the entry.

  • Length
    839
  • Mass (Da)
    95,680
  • Last updated
    1998-01-01 v2
  • Checksum
    92C48F55821133E8
MMSASRLAGTLIPAMAFLSCVRPESWEPCVEVVPNITYQCMELNFYKIPDNLPFSTKNLDLSFNPLRHLGSYSFFSFPELQVLDLSRCEIQTIEDGAYQSLSHLSTLILTGNPIQSLALGAFSGLSSLQKLVAVETNLASLENFPIGHLKTLKELNVAHNLIQSFKLPEYFSNLTNLEHLDLSSNKIQSIYCTDLRVLHQMPLLNLSLDLSLNPMNFIQPGAFKEIRLHKLTLRNNFDSLNVMKTCIQGLAGLEVHRLVLGEFRNEGNLEKFDKSALEGLCNLTIEEFRLAYLDYYLDDIIDLFNCLTNVSSFSLVSVTIERVKDFSYNFGWQHLELVNCKFGQFPTLKLKSLKRLTFTSNKGGNAFSEVDLPSLEFLDLSRNGLSFKGCCSQSDFGTTSLKYLDLSFNGVITMSSNFLGLEQLEHLDFQHSNLKQMSEFSVFLSLRNLIYLDISHTHTRVAFNGIFNGLSSLEVLKMAGNSFQENFLPDIFTELRNLTFLDLSQCQLEQLSPTAFNSLSSLQVLNMSHNNFFSLDTFPYKCLNSLQVLDYSLNHIMTSKKQELQHFPSSLAFLNLTQNDFACTCEHQSFLQWIKDQRQLLVEVERMECATPSDKQGMPVLSLNITCQMNKTIIGVSVLSVLVVSVVAVLVYKFYFHLMLLAGCIKYGRGENIYDAFVIYSSQDEDWVRNELVKNLEEGVPPFQLCLHYRDFIPGVAIAANIIHEGFHKSRKVIVVVSQHFIQSRWCIFEYEIAQTWQFLSSRAGIIFIVLQKVEKTLLRQQVELYRLLSRNTYLEWEDSVLGRHIFWRRLRKALLDGKSWNPEGTVGTGCNWQEATSI

O00206-2

  • Name
    2
  • See also
    sequence in UniParc or sequence clusters in UniRef
  • Differences from canonical

O00206-3

  • Name
    3
  • See also
    sequence in UniParc or sequence clusters in UniRef
  • Differences from canonical

Computationally mapped potential isoform sequences

There is 1 potential isoform mapped to this entry

View all
EntryEntry nameGene nameLength
A0A2R8Y7P4A0A2R8Y7P4_HUMANTLR432

Features

Showing features for alternative sequence, sequence conflict.

TypeIDPosition(s)Description
Alternative sequenceVSP_0357941-40in isoform 2
Alternative sequenceVSP_0357931-200in isoform 3
Sequence conflict73in Ref. 11; ABU41664
Sequence conflict400in Ref. 7; BAF82742
Sequence conflict581in Ref. 7; BAG64706

Polymorphism

Allele TLR4*B (Gly-299, Ile-399) is associated with a blunted response to inhaled LPS.

Keywords

Sequence databases

Nucleotide SequenceProtein SequenceMolecule TypeStatus
U93091
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
AAC80227.1
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
mRNA
AB445638
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
BAG55035.1
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
mRNA
DQ018107
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
AAY82267.1
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
Genomic DNA
DQ018108
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
AAY82268.1
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
Genomic DNA
DQ018109
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
AAY82269.1
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
Genomic DNA
AK290053
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
BAF82742.1
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
mRNA
AK293068
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
BAF85757.1
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
mRNA
AK303730
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
BAG64706.1
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
mRNA
AL160272
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
-Genomic DNA No translation available.
CH471090
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
EAW87448.1
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
Genomic DNA
CH471090
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
EAW87451.1
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
Genomic DNA
BC117422
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
AAI17423.1
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
mRNA
EF535831
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
ABU41662.1
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
Genomic DNA
EF535832
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
ABU41663.1
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
Genomic DNA
EF535833
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
ABU41664.1
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
Genomic DNA
AF177765
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
AAF05316.1
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
Genomic DNA
AF177766
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
AAF07823.1
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
Genomic DNA
AF172171
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
AAF89753.1
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
Genomic DNA
AF172169
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
AAF89753.1
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
Genomic DNA
AF172170
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
AAF89753.1
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
Genomic DNA
U88880
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
AAC34135.1
EMBL· GenBank· DDBJ
mRNA

Genome annotation databases

Similar Proteins

Disclaimer

Any medical or genetic information present in this entry is provided for research, educational and informational purposes only. It is not in any way intended to be used as a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, treatment or care. Our staff consists of biologists and biochemists that are not trained to give medical advice.
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